The Law in Paul’s Letters
Paul refers to “law” (nomos) 121 times in his letters; 106 of those references occur in the letter to the Romans and the letter to the Galatians. Paul mentions the law in connection with nearly every topic raised in Romans. While the usual meaning of the term for Paul appears straightforward (i.e., the law is the Mosaic law of the ot), his writings reveal an elaborate exploration of the relationship between the traditions of Judaism and faith in Christ. When Paul wrote his letters, the gospel of Jesus Christ was spreading beyond its Jewish origins and attracting Gentile converts. This circumstance forced Paul to address the matter of Jewish law, not only as embodied in the Mosaic law but also as the full expression of Jewish tradition and practice.
Observing the Law
In Paul’s day, the law in Jewish teaching contained both written and oral elements. The “written Law” referred the Pentateuch, the first five books of the ot (which were traditionally attributed to Moses and often called the “law of Moses”). The “oral law” primarily referred to Jewish tradition about how to put the written law into practice (Matt 15:2–6; Mark 7:1–13). Both types could be referred to simply with the Hebrew word torah (“law” or “instruction”). In Hellenistic (Greek-speaking) Judaism, the term nomos was used for the theological concept of Torah.
Obedience to the law had developed into the central defining characteristic of Judaism from the time of Ezra (Ezra 7:10; 9:1–15; Neh 8:1–8; 9:2–3). After the Babylonian exile, Jews viewed their defeat and continued political subjugation to foreign empires as divine punishment for their violation of the law. The solution was a renewed commitment to faithful observance of the Mosaic law, especially the practices that marked them as a distinct people among the foreigners who ruled over them.
The persecution of the Jews instigated by the Seleucid ruler Antiochus IV (175–164 bc) specifically targeted those areas of Jewish practice that most clearly distinguished them as a people, namely circumcision, refusal to participate in idol worship, and dietary restrictions (1 Macc 1:48; 2:15–28; 2 Macc 6:18–31). By the first century ad, many Jews believed proper observance of the law would eventually usher in the eschatological age and the establishment of the new covenant (Jer 31; Ezek 36). In fact, proper observance could even hasten the advent of the Messiah, who would cast off all foreign oppression, bring God’s judgment on the nations, and establish an independent Israel, ruling over the nations.
Paul’s focus on law in his letters addresses not only the basic meaning of nomos as a reference to Mosaic law, but also the theological baggage associated with proper observance of the Law or Torah in Judaism. For this reason, Paul often appears to be of two minds regarding the law. He sometimes affirms the law as something that is good and should be kept (Rom 7:12; 1 Cor 7:19), and other times he criticizes it for leading only to sin and death (1 Cor 15:56). Paul’s critique of Jewish practices centers on Jewish followers of Christ (often called “Judaizers”) who believe certain Jewish distinctive practices should be requirements for Gentile converts (see note on Gal 1:7; 2:11–16). Paul disagrees that practices such as circumcision (1 Cor 7:19; Gal 2:12) or dietary restrictions (1 Cor 8:8) should be requirements for following Christ. His purpose in downplaying the continuing relevance of the law can be seen in 1 Cor 9:19–23: Paul did not want these practices to unnecessarily hinder the spread of the gospel by putting up barriers among those who were not ethnically Jewish or willing to go through the rituals of formal conversion.
The New Covenant
While Paul rejects certain aspects of Torah observance, he still appeals to biblical law in the area of morality, using Scripture to support his teachings (1 Cor 5:10–13). Paul regularly invokes ot Scripture to support his preaching about Christ (Gal 3:13–14) and his practical teachings for the churches (1 Cor 9:8–9; 14:21–23). He also continually emphasizes the need for obedience to God’s commandments (1 Cor 7:19). Since he affirms the ot law in areas of morality but rejects specific practices, his emphasis on obedience likely centers on moral behavior rather than external religious actions as being the defining characteristics of the people of God (Gal 5:14; compare Matt 15:1–20).
In Romans and Galatians, Paul strenuously opposes the idea that righteousness before God can be attained by “proper” observance of the law (Gal 2:16; 3:10–12; Rom 2:12–14; 8:3). Moreover, observing the law perfectly is an impossible task (Gal 5:3; 6:13; Rom 3:9–20). His clearest statement of the law’s failure comes in Gal 2:16, where he states that “a person is not justified by the works of the law.” For Paul, the law’s failure points to its temporary nature (Gal 3:15–26). Attempts to force the legal demands of the ot on Gentile Christians keeps both Jews and Gentiles enslaved to sin (Gal 4:1–5:1; Rom 6:14–18).
Paul’s somewhat ambivalent remarks about the law’s importance (e.g. Rom 3:31) stem from his need to simultaneously affirm the law as divine revelation while emphasizing its true theological functions: to point to Christ (Rom 7:4–6) and bring the knowledge of sin (Rom 3:20; 7:7–11). In Paul’s view, observance of the law was never intended to be the final means for people to attain righteousness before God. Faith was a greater standard than works and had been established as far back as Abraham (Rom 4:1–13).
Paul uses the ot Scriptures to contrast the old covenant of the Mosaic law with the new covenant promised in the prophets (Jer 31; Ezek 36) and inaugurated in Christ (Rom 1:1–2). Paul’s message affirms the continuity in God’s plan for salvation while emphasizing a break with Jewish tradition as embodied in the observance of Torah.
Paul’s approach to the law is, thus, radically different than the prevailing views evident in most Jewish writings from the Second Temple period. The Judaism of Paul’s day centered on proper Torah observance and moved to a still greater emphasis on the Torah after the temple’s destruction by the Romans in ad 70. While the Jews worked to attain righteousness through observing the law, Paul declared the fulfillment of the law in Christ (Rom 10:4).
Douglas Mangum
