Satan in the Old Testament and the Serpent of Genesis 3
The common modern understanding is that the serpent (nachash in Hebrew) of Genesis 3 is Satan in the guise of a snake—that is, as a member of the animal kingdom. This view is accompanied by the view that Satan is the devil. This view emerges from the combination of several biblical passages.
In Revelation 12:9 and Revelation 20:2, the serpent (nachash) from Eden is associated with the devil, and the devil with Satan. But Revelation is the last book of the New Testament, and likely one of the last New Testament books to be written. Further, the term “devil”—which derives from the Greek word diabolos—does not appear in the Old Testament. Prior to Revelation, the Bible never associates the serpent of Genesis with Satan. The Old Testament has a framework that is later utilized by Revelation but does not make the same distinctions as Revelation.
Satan in the Old Testament
The Hebrew word satan is not a proper noun in the Old Testament—it’s not a name. As such, the term was not used to refer to a cosmic enemy of God. A brief consideration of the Hebrew grammar helps explain why.
Like English, Hebrew does not attach the definite article (“the”) to proper personal nouns. For example, English speakers do not refer to themselves (or to another person) with phrases like “the Tom” or “the Janet.” However, most of the 27 occurrences of satan in the Hebrew Bible include a definite article—essentially reading “the satan.” For example, all occurrences in the book of Job (Job 1:6–9, 12; 2:1–4, 6–7) include the definite article. The term is applied to a divine being with the definite article in Zechariah 3:1–2, where Joshua the high priest stands before the satan who accuses him of misdeeds in the company of the Angel of Yahweh. Yahweh then rebukes the satan, since he has pardoned Joshua (and so, Israel).
Of the remaining occurrences of satan, only three passages use the word of a divine being: Numbers 22:22, Numbers 22:32 and 1 Chronicles 21:1. The rest are used of humans. In these three passages, a definite article is not included—meaning that there is no grammatical reason to prohibit them from referring to a cosmic enemy of God. Yet the context of each of these passages rules out this interpretation. In fact, the two occurrences in Numbers refer not to God’s enemy, but to the Angel of Yahweh. The remaining occurrence—where the satan provokes David to take a census—also does not refer to God’s enemy: in the parallel passage to the event (2 Sam 24:1), God Himself prompts David to take the census. In addition, contextual clues in 1 Chronicles 21:1 indicate that the satan is the Angel of Yahweh. Thus the two passages can be harmonized, as the Old Testament often co-identifies God and the Angel of Yahweh (see 1 Chr 21:1). Ultimately, there are no passages in the OT where the word satan refers to God’s cosmic enemy.
But why is the word satan used to refer to humans and the Angel of Yahweh? The answer is straightforward: the term means “accuser” or “challenger.” The Hebrew word satan describes a particular action or role, often in the context of opposition or judgment. In the case of Numbers 22:22, and Numbers 22:32, God sent the Angel of Yahweh to oppose Balaam on his journey to curse Israel. In the case of 1 Chronicles 21:1, the parallel passage of 2 Samuel 24:1 explains: “Again Yahweh was angry with Israel, and he incited David against them, saying, ‘Go count Israel and Judah.’ ” God was already angry at David and planned to judge him. He then sent the Angel to prompt David to take a census, which led to his punishment. God used the Angel (his accuser) as an instrument of judgment on David.
The Serpent in Genesis
The word satan does not occur anywhere in Genesis 3; rather, the word translated “serpent” is nachash. Hence, the two terms are never co-identified in the Old Testament. But just because the serpent (nachash) is not called satan does not mean that the serpent was not a divine being. The Hebrew term satan may refer to either a human or a divine being, depending on the context. Likewise, nachash—though typically referring to a snake—has nuances which allow for multiple meanings.
When nachash functions as a noun, it means “snake.” But the root consonants of the word also form the Hebrew verb that means “to conjure” or “practice divination” (see 2 Kgs 21:6; Gen 30:27; 44:5). Nachash in Genesis 3 can be interpreted in this light, and understood as “the conjurer.” Since the practice of divination aimed to solicit and dispense divine knowledge, the context of Genesis 3 is consistent with this possibility. However, technical grammatical reasons make this interpretation unlikely.
The root consonants are also the basis for words that refer to shining metals, such as bronze—a description used elsewhere in the Old Testament for divine beings (see Ezek 1:14–16, 27–28; Dan 10:6; compare Matt 28:3; Rev 10:1). For example, Ezekiel 28:13 contains an “anointed cherub” figure, who inhabits the garden of Eden. If this figure is a divine being, there may be a link between that figure’s brilliant, shining appearance and the root consonants of nachash in Genesis 3. Consequently, the word nachash may refer to a “shining one” in the garden of Eden—a divine being who conversed with Eve and deceived her.
Since Eden seems to be God’s temple and abode, the “shining one” option represents a viable interpretation. It also helps explain why Eve is not surprised when the nachash speaks to her. The primary obstacle to this perspective is the possible inter-relationship between Genesis 3, Ezekiel 28, and Isaiah 14: both Ezekiel and Isaiah describe Eden and the cosmic rebellion without reference to a snake.
New Testament Conflation of Terms
In the book of Revelation, the term satan and the serpent (nachash) of Genesis 3 are conceptually merged. The correlation is logical: The serpent was the original “opposer” (“adversary”; satan) of God’s kingdom on earth. As such, the nachash was perceived as the original enemy, the Grand Adversary (satan). However, when this correlation developed is less apparent. A number of non-biblical Jewish writings prior to the birth of Jesus developed a rich tradition about the Grand Adversary. Some of these texts used “Satan” as a proper noun in referring to that enemy; New Testament writers did as well.
MICHAEL S. HEISER
John D. Barry et al., Faithlife Study Bible (Bellingham, WA: Lexham Press, 2012, 2016).
